AP Biology Summer Assignment

Welcome to our Summer Assignment! This summer assignment is meant to cover the groundwork topics required for understanding our first unit. The course uses labs to develop deep understanding so it's essential that you come in with the basics. The summer work covers some information that you have seen before and some that will be new - now we need to embed it solidly in our memories. Schedule your time Please take your time with this and email me anytime you are stuck so I can help you with the content. You may work at your own pace but it's a good idea to plan out what you're going to do and when.There are five major topics we're going to complete: 1) Basic BioChemistry (6 parts) 2) Cell structure and function (5 parts) 3) Basic Genetics (4 parts)Use the calendar below to organize your strategy for completion this summer. Feel free to use this tool to help organize everything you're planning - I'll only be looking for the bio units. Your Plan (I'm looking for where you are scheduling your summer bio study time) Weekday Weekend June 14-20th June 21-27th June 28th - July 4th July 5th - 11th July 12th - 18th July 19th - 25th July 26th - August 1st August 2nd - 8th August 9th - 15th August 16-22nd Part 1a: Chemistry Basics - Atomic Structure Cells make tissues, tissues make organs, organs make organ systems, which build full creatures.But what's smaller than the cell? Organelles.What's smaller than organelles? The molecules that build them.Smaller than molecules? Elements!Chemistry, the study of elements and molecules, is at the basic level of Biology - the study of life. It's important to understand the basics of chemistry for a solid understanding of the foundation of biology. The basics of Biology - Chemistry Watch the video and answer the questions that follow. It may help to watch once, and then watch again while taking notes first. Metabolism is how our body breaks down the chemical structure of the molecules we eat and re-formats those molecules to build structures for our needs. Which of the following is a way that molecules are broken down and reformatted? Proteins in a hamburger are broken down into amino acids to build our proteins Sugars in bread are broken into simple carbohydrates which run our cellular respiration Fat in a burger are re-used for our cell membranes None of these are true. Fill in the blanks based off the first 2 minutes of this video and use the images below:Figure 1: Periodic TableFigure 2: Atomic StructureFigure 3: Carbon Atom ProtonsLook at "Image 1: the periodic table" above and find Carbon (C). Above carbon is the number 6. The element to the left of carbon is number 5 and the element to the right is number 7. These numbers are the amount of protons in the element. Protons determine what the element actually is. The structure of the periodic table is set up so that all the elements are in a line from the least amount of protons to the most.This is how we've discovered new elements! Knowing there's an element with 58 protons gives us the challenge of finding the element that has 59. The heaviest element in nature is Uranium with 92 protons but that hasn't stopped us from slamming extra protons onto atoms to try to make them bigger. In 2002 the element Oganesson (Og) was made by slamming 118 protons together. If carbon has 6 protons, how many protons do these other elements have:Hydrogen 1Oxygen 8Nitrogen 7Phosphorus 15Take a look at figure 2: atomic structure. Protons are positive and remain in the nucleus of an atom. We know that opposites attract and like charges repel so it makes sense that large elements (with many positives repelling each other but simultaneously trapped in the nucleus) are unstable and fall apart. This will lead into discussions about radioactive decay later in our course.NeutronsWhat about the neutrons in an atom (figure 2). Neutrons are uncharged particles in the nucleus that are the same weight as a proton. Remember that electrons weigh a negligible amount so when you find the mass of an atom you're only adding the protons and neutrons. This means a carbon, with 6 protons and 6 neutrons, weighs approximately 12 units (I'm simplifying a bit here but it'll work for our needs). Most standard versions of the elements we'll be using have equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Changing the neutron number of an atom changes its mass but NOT what element it is or its charge.ElectronsBalanced elements have equal numbers of positive protons and negative electrons. So if we know how many protons an element has we automatically know how many electrons the element needs to be balanced. If Carbon has 6 protons we know it has 6 electrons.How many electrons does a balanced Calcium (Ca) have? 20These electrons are tiny!!! Approximately 1840th the size of a proton!!!Take a look at figure 2: atomic structure. Negative electrons are tiny and travel in electron orbitals outside of the nucleus. Exactly where and how they orbit will be discussed in your future Chemistry courses - In Biology we take a simplistic approach called the 2-8-8 rule. Take a look at figure 2: atomic structure (again). The first ring around the nucleus only "fits" 2 electrons. In biology we assume that there are only 8 electrons fitting on each successive ring.In carbons case there are 8 electrons. 8 electrons - 2 on the first shell = 6 left over on the second shell. Take a look at figure 3: Carbon Atom to see how to visualize this.How many shells does Calcium have? 20 protons = 20 electrons. 20 electrons - 2 on the first shell = 18 electrons left.18 electrons - 8 on the second shell = 10 electrons left.10 electrons - 8 on the third shell = 2 electrons left.How many shells does calcium have? 3Look up a picture of a calcium atom to see if you got that last answer rightValence ElectronsThe video stated that life is built on carbon because it has four valence electrons which allows it to bond with many other elements but what are valence electrons? The valence electrons are what's left on the outside ring. The 6 electrons on carbon have 2 on the first ring and four on the second ... so there are four electrons.Find the valence electrons for Silicon (Si). Silicon has 14 protons = 14 electrons.14 electrons - 2 on the first ring leaves 12.12 electrons - 8 on the second ring leaves 4. There are four valence electrons... electrons on the unfilled outer ring of the atom.Questions:When you change the number of protons you would be changing what element you're looking at.When you change the number of electrons you would be changing the charge (adding negatives makes it more negative while subtracting negatives makes it more positive).When you change the number of neutrons you would be changing the mass of the element.Protons and Neutrons can be found in the nucleus of an atom. Knowledge Check: See if you "get it" by filling out the chart below Element Protons Electrons How Many Shells Number of Valence Electrons Carbon 6 6 2 4 Hydrogen 1 1 1 1 Oxygen 8 8 2 6 Nitrogen 7 7 2 5 Phosphorus 15 15 3 5 Bonding Analysis and Application1. What do Nitrogen and Phosphorus have in common based on the table you filled out in the last question? 2. Check out their physical location on the periodic table... what is the pattern it suggests? 3. Does this pattern hold true for other elements? 4. Give an example of two other elements using this same pattern. 1b. Basics of Chemistry - Covalent Bonding Covalent bonding is based on the valence electrons.Every atom "wants" a full outer shell. This would mean 8 total electrons on the outer shell (except for hydrogen and helium who only have 1 shell and therefore only need 2 total electrons to be full).Carbon has 4 valence electrons so it wants 4 more to be complete. It can do this by covalently bonding - sharing the electrons from a nearby atom.Hydrogen has 1 valence electron so it wants one more to be complete (remember it only has one shell). It can covalently bond - sharing its electrons too.This image shows a central carbon covalently bonding to four hydrogens. Look at the green electrons on the carbon. There are two on the first shell and four on the second shell. Hydrogen brings one electron shown in red. By getting close to the carbon the hydrogen and carbon can share their electrons so the hydrogen can get the one it needs. If this is repeated with four hydrogens each hydrogen will get the electron it needs from carbon and the carbon can share the four hydrogens four electrons so it winds up with eight too. Analyze the diagram - do you see how each hydrogen now has two electrons on their outer shells? One red that it brought and one green that it's sharing with the carbon. Can you also see that the carbon now has 8 electrons on its outer shell - four from itself originally and four total from the four hydrogens it's sharing with. Knowledge Check and Application: 1. Is this atom going to want to bond?2. Is this atom going to want to bond based on its electrons?3. Why are the elements in carbons column from the periodic table likely to form bonds? 1c. Basic Chemistry: The Bonds of Life and Carbohydrates Zooming in from one person we have Organism --> Organ System --> Organ --> Tissue --> Cells --> Organelles --> Biological MacromoleculesThere are four major Macromolecules for life that are created by the bonding of elements that we just discussed. *Carbohydrates *Lipids *Nucleic Acids *ProteinsWe can create these molecules by bonding specific amounts of elements into specific shapes.Carbohydrates:We are able to build carbohydrates using the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Typically starting with a ring of connected carbons with hydrogens and oxygens connected. Remember, the covalent bonding of carbons and hydrogens is going to cause this molecule to stick together. A typical Carbohydrate is shown below.Analyse the image: This carbohydrate (specifically glucose) is built using six carbons (represented in blue), twelve hydrogens (represented in pink), and six oxygens (represented in yellow). Check the bonds in the image! Carbon has four valence electrons so it will need four additional bonds represented by a line. Does every blue carbon have four lines attached?Hydrogen has one valence electron but only one shell so it only needs one more bond. Does every pink hydrogen have one line?Oxygen has six valence electrons so it needs two more bonds. Does every oxygen have two lines attached?Different ways to visualize it:The image above is called a ball and stick model that shows all the elements and where they are bonding. The image below shows the same molecule (glucose) without showing each element but just listing where they are instead.Some diagrams won't even show the carbons and would just assume that you know each corner is a carbon (see below):Making it bigger:Carbohydrates can attach together in long strands. The image below shows two separate rings of carbohydrates bonding together. The red Oxygen and Hydrogen on the left and the red Hydrogen on the right can link together and literally "drip" out (think H + OH = H20... water). We call this dehydration synthesis.When we drip out water it's called dehydration synthesis and it leaves behind a covalent bond called a glycosidic bond. I can keep doing this and make longer and longer chains.What's the Point?When we eat these strands (a slice of bread, a cookie, some pasta are all high in carbohydrates) we break the bonds and get energy. Carbohydrates give us quick energy that we can use to breath, move, play sports, and even think. How do we break the bonds? Using hydrolysis- we simply add the water molecule back in to separate the rings. If we don't use it all we can store it in our bodies for later. Match the term with the definition Dehydration Synthesis Build molecules by dripping out water Hydrolysis Break molecules by putting in water Carbon Needs four bonds Hydrogen Needs one bond Oxygen Needs two bonds 1d. Basic Chemistry: The Bonds of Life and Lipids Lipids:Lipids are also made with Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen but in a different arrangement than carbohydrates. Instead of forming rings it forms long chains of carbons with hydrogens sticking off. Check the bonds - does every carbon have 4 bonds? Does every hydrogen have 1? Does every oxygen have 2? Look closely at the third "tail" - do you see the double bond between the carbons that makes it bend? That's an unsaturated fat... it's not fully saturated by hydrogens.Build it bigger, break it smallerLipids form just like carbohydrates. Dehydration synthesis build up to three "tails" onto an initial glycerol. Hydrolysis breaks them back off to supply the individual eating them with energy. In the image below the water can be dripped out to add the tails on OR added back in to break off tails.Lipids can have very long hydrocarbon tails - the longer the tail the more energy that can be broken off and accessed. The image below shows three tails of varying length on a single lipid:Same Ingredients, different productCarbohydrates are made from C, H, and O...Lipids are made from C, H, and O...In biology there is a phrase that we keep coming back to "shape determines function". In this case, the ring of a single carbohydrate like glucose is made from 6 carbons, 12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygens (C6H12O6)... compare this to the lipid above and you can see the formula for this lipid is C45H86O6The change in number and arrangement of the elements are what causes carbohydrate to give off quick energy (less bonds to break) whereas lipids give off long term energy (more bonds to break)Good fats and bad fatsYou may have heard about saturated and unsaturated fats before (we touched on it briefly above as well)As you can see in the diagram above, an unsaturated fatty acid (tail) has a double bond... it's NOT saturated with a hydrogen at every carbon bond. Instead of bonding outwards to a hydrogen the carbon double bonds to the next carbon in line. This causes a bend in the chain and, since shape determines function, the change in shape causes a change in function.Unsaturated fats are "better" for us specifically because of the bends. A "bendy" long molecule will be a liquid at room temperature and will travel through our blood stream faster and easier than a stiff, solid, molecule. This is why vegetable oil is considered better than butter. Knowledge Check:True or false - lipids and carbs are made from the same pieces but in different shapes true false Knowledge Check:Fill in the blanks: Carbohydrates are used for _ energy and lipids are used for _ energy quick, quick quick, long term long term, quick long term, long term Knowledge Check:Choose the correct statement or statements saturated fats are better for you, are solid at room temperature, and have a hydrogen on every available carbon bond unsaturated fats are better for you, are solid at room temperature, and have a hydrogen on every available carbon bond saturated fats are worse for you, are solid at room temperature, and have a hydrogen on every available carbon bond unsaturated fats are better for you, are liquid at room temperature, and have double bonded carbons 1e. Basic Chemistry: The Bonds of Life and Nucleic Acids The Instructions for LifeNucleic acids are the instructions for how to create you and everything you do. Inside every one of your cells is a complete list of instructions on how to make a new you. We are at the point technologically of being able to read these instructions to find information such as hair color, eye color, gender, and even diagnosing disease.The DNA in the image above (Deoxyribonucleic acid) has a backbone in blue made of deoxyribose sugars and phosphates. The ladder like pieces in the middle are nitrogenous bases that link across the middle of the two side arms with adenine (A) always pairing to thymine (T) and cytosine (C) always pairing to guanine (G). [one way to think about this is with the catch phrase Apples in a Tree and Cars in a Garage]The smaller pieces of DNA are called nucleotides. They are made from sugars, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases using the elements Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus (CHONP).The orders of the As Ts Cs and Gs is what gives the actual code.For Example: ATA CCC GGA might mean brown eyesWhile ATA CCG GGA might mean blue eyes.The order of the letters is incredibly important because it literally codes for who you are as a creature so the bonds between the backbone sugars and phosphates are very strong bonds. How do the letters actually make the stuff happen?The DNA is kept in the nucleus only so that it doesn't fall apart or run into problems. The nucleus is like a safe to keep this highly important document. In order to send the information out of the safe your cells make aphotocopy called RNA. RNA is different for a couple reasons but we'll focus on how it CAN travel out of the nucleus as well as how it has Ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose. The RNA tells the cell how to build the parts that the DNA instructed for. Can you digest milk? Your DNA is sending out RNA that physically builds lactase... the enzyme that breaks down milk. If you can't drink milk the DNA has a mistaken code and the RNA is NOT building lactase. Knowledge Check Fill in the other half of the DNA below Original Strand of DNA ATC GGG TCA GAT CTA Other half of the DNA (remember A-T and C-G) TAG CCC AGT CTA GAT Knowledge Check for Nucleic Acids Match the definitions to the concept DNA Instructional material made with deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases RNA Instructional material made with ribose sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous bases Location of DNA ONLY in the nucleus Location of RNA CAN travel out of the nucleus Match to A T Match to C G Synthesis and ApplicationOut of the 100% of the DNA in a human genome 30% is Adenine. How much Guanine would you expect? 30% 70% 20% Not enough information 1f. Basic Chemistry: The Bonds of Life and Proteins Last one: Proteins!Proteins are our worker molecules. The lactase that the DNA codes for isthe protein.Early on scientists fought over whether the DNA or Proteins were the inherited features and this makes perfect sense when you think that you may match the eye color proteins of your parents but it was their DNA that was sent down to you to actually instruct your body to make that color protein.Every action we do in our bodies is based off a protein working OR a protein malfunctioning. Here are some examples of important proteins in your body:Another famous phrase in Biology is: DNA makes RNA makes Protein.The DNA instructions send the portable copy (RNA) out of the nucleus to physically build the proteins... the worker molecules.How are they built? The monomer (single piece) is called an amino acid and is primarily made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen..Take a look at the amino acid monomer above. There is a central carbon with a hydrogen above, a left hand Nitrogen with two hydrogens, and a right hand carbon with two oxygens and a hydrogen. This makes the basic formula C2H4O2N. What is that R?Notice the lower R group coming down from the central carbon? That R group is variable and defines which of the 20 possible amino acids it could be.Notice how each amino acid has the same main structure (although this diagram shows it with three hydrogens on the left - ignore this for now) but the R group differs. A threonine for example has an additional C2H5O In addition to the central structure which amino acid monomer ALSO contains CH3S? Leucine Cysteine Lysine Glutamic Acid Building Amino Acids:We're going to use the same method of building that all molecules use: dehydration synthesisUse the image above to learn more and to answer the questions below Each amino acid lines up to build into a full protein. The right hand carbon loses an OH and the left hand nitrogen loses an H. These form H2O, a water molecule which drips out to build in the process of dehydration synthesis.The line of amino acids in order IS the protein. Who determines the order of the proteins? DNA.The R groups in a row determines the shape of the protein and remember: shape determines function.Take a look at Lysine and Aspartic Acid from the image in the question set above. Lysine has a positive R group and Aspartic Acid has a negative R group. Because of this they will attract each other and "bend" the row of amino acids. This shape change will cause a functional change.Polar molecules such as Serine, Threonine, and Tyrosine are attracted to water. They will try to group together when placed in a water environment (like our insides). This group of amino acids will be a different shape with a different function. Review Biomolecules Watch this video and answer the questions after to wrap up your biochemistry unit. Answer the questions to demonstrate your understanding of this unit The word monomer means building block – if I had some large substance, the parts that make up that substance are called monomers. Just like building blocks.We need to understand biomolecules, because they're building components of life. The 4 biomolecules are carbohydrates, Lipids, nucleic acids and Proteins.Let's start with Carbohydrates. Pasta and breads are examples of foods heavy in carbohydrates. Carbs are actually a very important source of energy. They are a great, fast source of energy. The monomer for a carb is called a monosaccharide.Next one up is a diverse group known as lipids, better known as fats. They don't have repeating monomers and, instead, are made of 1-3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol. Examples of lipids include butter, oil, and cholesterol. Lipids, though, they have a lot of great functions. Lipids are great for insulating and are a great source of long term energy. Lipids also make up cell membranes.Proteins are great for muscle building. Examples of foods that are high in protein include meats and many types of beans. The monomers of protein are amino acids. Proteins are also very important in other functions such as working in the immune system and acting as enzymes.Now when we start talking about genes - the DNA codes for proteins that are very important for structure and function in the body. Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA with a monomer called a nucleotide. Both of these are involved in genetic information for the coding of your traits. They are found in a lot of your food, because whenever you eat something that came from something once living, it can still contain the DNA. Summarize Biochem. Sort your knowledge: Carbohydrates CHO in a ring structure made of monosaccharides used for quick energy Lipids CHO with "tails" made of glycerol and 1-3 fatty tails used for long term energy Nucleic Acids CHONP Instructional molecule made of nucleotides looks like a ladder with nitrogen bases in the middle Proteins CHON Functional molecule made of amino acids looks like a "bent molecule because shape determines function Part 2a: Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote The basic unit of life is the cell!The most simple cellular life is the prokaryote: a single celled bacteria or archaea with no internal compartments. A prokaryote (translated from pro=before and karyote=kernal has free DNA and ribosomes floating in a cytoplasm bath. The earliest cells used this structure for survival as being small and relatively uncomplicated was necessary for survival.Over time some cells went through a process of infolding and some even ingested other prokaryotic cells to become eukaryotic. A eukaryotic cell HAS a kernel as well as other compartments.Eukaryotic cells have internal compartments to organize different functions. Imagine how difficult it would be if science, math, history, PE, music and art were all being taught in the gym at the same time! A eukaryotic cell takes advantage of compartments... rooms... to have different activities happening in different places. This allows for greater efficiency and some more advanced processes. Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic Watch the following video to discuss the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. After watching the video sort the facts into prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryote smaller simpler no nucleus older single celled only circular DNA Eukaryote has membrane bound nucleus has membrane bound organelles larger more complicated linear DNA Both has ribosomes has DNA has cytoplasm has membrane Part 2b: It's what's inside that counts: Organelles It may seem trivial but you... need... to... know... the... organelles... by... heart!!!The following text is JUST THE CELL and is 1462 pages long. If you don't know the basic functions by heart you will struggle immensely with analysis of advanced cellular content.Watch the following video, read the content, make some flashcards and study. Organelle knowledge is as basic as 2+2. If you're in the bio realm and you don't know it people will be concerned about you. Detailed Organelle Video Watch and take notes on the organelles Here are a bunch more resources and ways to practice Locate and Highlight the OrganellesGame for OrganellesBring it to life - see inside an animated versionPractice finding and identifyingSuper cute interactive Match the organelle image, name, and function Image Name Job Description Mitochondria Produces ATP which is the energy molecule of the cell Nucleus Compartmentalizes the genetic information in a cell Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Composed of a rough and smooth side this organelle produces proteins and lipids Golgi Organizing the materials made by the ER this organelle packages, sorts, and sends finished proteins Chloroplast Capturing energy directly from the sun this organelle transforms the solar energy into chemical energy If we zoom into a cell we can easily see how everyday processes mimic cellular compartmentalization. Imagine a school - which organelles perform each function? A school is a large group of functions working together in separate compartments so that many different activities can be accomplished at the same time. The main instructions for how the school needs to be run and how are stored in the office (nucleus). The office has walls (nuclear envelope) with locking doors to keep this information secure and ensure that nothing gets lost or misplaced. The teachers (endoplasmic reticulum) take the instructions and turn it into daily instruction and interaction. Sometimes information has to be sent to other parts of the school or even out of the school entirely... a bin for interoffice mail (golgi) allows packages to be sent to their appropriate locations. Custodians (lysosomes) pick up the old materials and remove them from the building to reduce clutter and recycle. The doors of the building itself (cell membrane) selectively allow certain individuals in and out. The generators (mitochondria) in the building produce energy for each room to run efficiently. I can't say it enough... know these organelles, shapes, and function by heart. Part 2c: Multiplication by Division: Mitosis We've seen the major differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells now: size, organelles, compartmentalization, nucleus, and single vs. multi celled. How does a single eukaryotic cell actually make more of itself with the exact right instructions? MitosisMitosis is the process of taking one cell, copying its DNA instructions perfectly, and dividing to make two identical cells. Video on Mitosis In the area below I have narrowed down the most important things you need to take away from the video above. Study those bits :) Your cells clone themselves so that you can be larger than a single celled organism. We do this as we develop, grow, heal, and stay alive through the process of mitosis. Inside every cell is all of your DNAinstructions on how to build you neatly organized into chromosomes. Your body cells, or somatic cells, have 46 chromosomesgrouped into 23 pairs. One in each pair is from your mom, and the other one's from your dad. Cells with all 46 chromosomes are called diploid cells, because they have 2 sets each. The process of mitosis takes one 46 chromosome diploid cell and splits this into two cells that are genetically identical each with 46chromosomes.The nucleus in your cell has all of the instructions necessary for making the cell survive so you don't need to duplicate the whole cell, all you need to do is duplicate two separate pockets of DNA, to have two new cells.Mitosis takes place in a series of discrete stages prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Most of their lives, our cells stay in a period called interphase, which means they're in between episodes of mitosis, growing and working and making proteins. During interphase the DNA begins to replicate itself making two copies of every strand of DNA.During the first phase, prophase, the mess of copied chromatin condenses and coils up on itself to produce thick strands of DNA wrapped around proteins. Next the nuclear envelope gets out of the way by completely disintegrating.Next, during metaphase, the chromosomes attach to microtubules in the middle at their centromeres. The microtubules engage in a tug of war with the chromosomes tug-of-war to line up the chromosomes exactly in the middle. Now it's time to separate the chromosomes from their copies during anaphase. Motor proteins start pulling on the X-shaped chromosomes to break them apart into single chromosomes. Once they're detached from each other, they're dragged toward either end of the cell.In the last phase, telophase, each of the new cell's structures are reconstructed; the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes relax back into chromatin. A little crease forms between the two new cells representing the area of to cut. During cytokinesis the cells separate and we now have two new identical cells, each with the full set of chromosomes called daughter cells. Mitosis Make sure you know the general idea of what is happening in each phase. We'll dive more into details in the course itself. Interphase The cell spends 90% of its time here. It's the longest phase when the cell is actively at work making proteins. The DNA duplicates at this time Prophase The chromosomes condense into clear X structures and the nuclear envelope disintegrates. Metaphase Microtubules push the chromosomes into the center of the cell Anaphase The chromosomes are tugged apart and dragged to opposite sides of the cell. Telophase The chromosomes unravel and the nuclear envelope returns. The cell begins to form a furrow to divide. Part 2d: Talking to the neighbors: Cellular Communication After mitosis we have two cells... then four... then eight... up to approximately 15 trillion cells that form an adult human. Each cell doesn't exist independently however, they work together to accomplish goals. For example, all million cells that make up your eyeball right now are relaying information down the cells in your optic nerve to tell the cells in your brain what you're reading. Three major ways cells communicate are: Autocrine, Paracrine, and Endocrine.The word "Auto" "crine" means "self" "signal". Think of autocrine signaling like sticky notes you leave around the house to remind yourself to do something. Or the alert or alarm on your phone to remind you to get something from the store. Autocrine signaling is a cell telling itself what to do.Paracrine is short distance signaling. This would be ideal communication for nearby contacts. These usually short lived messages provide information to neighboring cells. Think of paracrine like snapchat. It's short local communication.Endocrine is long distance signaling. This would be communication across the whole body. This is usually long lasting signals that travel through the bloodstream. Think of endocrine as snail mail across the country.Compare the three signals below: Place the descriptors in their correct communication type Autocrine self sticky notes writing a reminder on your hand Paracrine local short lived passing a note to a friend in class Endocrine long distance long lasting uses bloodstream amazon delivery Part 2e: We gotta move it move it: Diffusion and Active Transport With all of the different molecules moving around in different compartments we need a way to explain how and why this is occuring. There are two general types of movement: Passive transport and active transport.During passive transportthe cell expends no energy to move molecules. In this case the molecules in the cell move from areas of high concentration (crowded) to low concentration (open).Imagine a concert where everyone is packed in (pre-covid). This would be a high concentration.After the concert everyone disperses - they spread out and move to lower concentration.This movement from high to low concentration is known as diffusion.During Active Transport the cell uses energy to move solutes AGAINST their gradient... to where it's MORE crowded. This could be a case of the cell requiring more a particular solute so it expends energy to physically pull them in OR the solute needs to be exported and the cell spends energy to physically push it out. This energy will be supplied by the mitochondria with the molecule ATP. Watch this video on Diffusion and Active Transport then answer the questions. Fill in the blanks based on the video Cells must have some control on what goes in and out of them. A very important structure for this that ALL cells contain is the cell membrane. By controlling what goes in and out, the cell membrane helps regulate homeostasis. Some molecules have no problem going through the cell membrane and directly go through; for example, gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. It doesn’t take any energy to move these molecules in or out so this is known as passive transport - diffusion. Molecules move from a high concentration to a low with the concentration gradient. But what if you want to go the other way? For example, the cells lining your gut need to take in glucose. But what if the concentration of glucose in the cell is higher than the environment? We need to get the glucose in and it’s going to have to be forced against the regular gradient flow. Movement of molecules from low to high concentration takes ATP energy because it's moving against the flow, against the concentration gradient. Part 3a: Basic Genetics and VocabularyDon't worry - this is content you have directly covered in the last year. You've got this!Some basic vocab we need to be able to use:Humans are diploidcreatures meaning that they carry two copies of each gene. That's why we can be homozygous(same letters) like AA or aa, or we can be heterozygous(different letters) like Aa.Let's take a second to see this in action. If a woman got a blue eyed gene from her mom and a brown eyed gene from her dad she would be Bb. The big B represents the dominant brown allele and the b represents the recessive blue allele. What is dominant anyway? A dominant allele stands for a working allele. Brown is dominant because it works to make brown eyes. We use a capital letter to represent it.So what is recessive? A recessive allele is literally a broken allele! Blue is recessive because it's broken and doesn't produce any pigment leaving the eyes clear. We use a lower case letter to represent it.So the woman in the example above got a working gene from her dad and a broken gene from here mom = Bb. Since she has a copy of the working gene she will still have brown eyes.What if she has kids with another heterozygous brown eyed person? We can use a punnet square to figure out what the chances of having a brown eyed baby is.A punnet square shows all the possible crosses for two genotypes (allele combinations). In the case of the punnet square above the mom's Bb is placed on the side and the dad's Bb is placed on the top. Each open box shows how the eggs and sperm could combine. If the mom's B and the dad's B meet then the child will be homozygous dominant. BUT if the mom's B and the dad's b meet then the child will be heterozygous. Using the genotype you can determine the phenotype (how the child physically looks). The children who are BB and Bb will both have brown eyes since they have a copy of the working allele. The child with bb will have blue eyes since they have NO copies of the working allele. Fill in the blanks with the correct vocabulary to complete the narrative. A woman with homozygous dominant attached earlobes, EE, mates with a man who has heterozygous attached earlobes, Ee. In order to determine what kind of offspring they can have they complete a punnet square. The results show 50% Ee and 50% EE. None of their kids are recessive, ee.The genotype of EE and Ee would create a phenotype of 100% of the kids having attached earlobes. Demonstrate your understanding of the basic vocabulary by sorting the following into their correct categories. Homozygous dominant genotype BB ZZ RR Heterozygous genotype Dd Ee Ff Homozygous recessive genotype gg hh ii Phenotype widows peak attached earlobes hitchhikers thumb Part 3b: Crossing two traits at once We can easily determine the offspring of two parents with brown hair. We can also easily determine the offspring of two parents with brown eyes. Can we do it both simultaneously?Yes!A dihybrid cross shows two traits crossing simultaneously.Say a mom is AaBb. Each trait HAS to wind up in her eggs. The possible combinations for her eggs are AB, Ab, aB, and ab. If a dad is also AaBb we have to see all the possible combinations for his sperm. These would also be AB, Ab, aB, ab. Hopefully you can see that there is an allele for each trait being passed down in both the mother and fathers eggs and sperm.To cross these we need a dihybrid cross which is set up as a 4x4. Watch this video to see how to set one up. Creating a Dihybrid Cross. This lady does a great job explaining it both for solving for genotype and phenotype. Solve the dihybrid cross blanks below. Dihybrid Cross (eggs across, sperm down) AB Ab aB ab AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb Analyze the dihybrid cross you just completed: 9 will be dominant for both traits3 will be dominant for the first trait but recessive for the second3 will be recessive for the first trait but dominant for the second1 will be recessive for both traits Part 3c: Rebellious Genetics What happens when the genetics don't quite follow the basic rules?Well technically they're still following the predicted patterns but the phenotype shows up differently.In COdominance BOTH traits show up. For example: a black chicken and a white chicken can make checkered chickens... which are black and white at the same time. The root word CO gives you the clue that both are going to appear. To show this in a punnet square we would use two different capital letters to visually show that it's not normal genetics. The black chicken would be BB and the white chicken would be WW so checkered chickens would be BW.In Incomplete dominance traits blend together. For example: a red snapdragon plant and a white snapdragon plant blend to make pink snapdragons. Incomplete lets you know that neither trait is fully dominant so they are going to mix. To show this on a punnet square we use a prime to indicate the different traits. The red snapdragon is RR and the white is R'R'. The pink are R'R.In Sex Linked traits the trait is carried on the X chromosome. Girls have XX as their genotype so if one X has a mutation they still can have the "normal" trait. Boys have XY so if their X is mutated they are going to show the mutated phenotype. To show this on a punnet square we would put the trait with the X. A mother who carries a color blind recessive trait would be XCXc while a dad who is color blind would be XcY. Their kids could be XCXc (female normal) and XcY (colorblind male). Demonstrate your understanding of rebellious genetics by sorting the following into their correct categories. Regular Genetics Rr x Rr MM x Mm Codominance BOTH show BB x MM Incomplete Dominance Traits BLEND T'T' x T'T Sex Linked Carried on the X XHXH x Xh Part 3d: Seeing the Instructions The instructions to make our traits,... us... is coded in our DNA. Take a look at this website to see all the chromosomes in our bodies and some of the traits each one carries. Human GenomeIt's essential that this information is coded exactly correctly. Changes to the code are called mutations and can cause negative effects, positive effects, or sometimes no effect at all. We are at the technological ability to begin fixing these mistakes and modifying the code - we'll do this in the actual class :) From the genome website above choose a chromosome and research one disorder contained on it. Do not choose the same on you did in your biology course prior to this :) Chromosome number Disorder name Symptoms How common is it Is there treatment or a cure? Karyotypes A karyotype shows the chromosomes in a human and can show if there are errors on the chromosomes themselves. Normal diploid karyotypes will have two copies of each chromosome. Atypical chromosomes may have missing or additional chromosomes.Here is a normal karyotype of a boy... see the XY at the bottom right? Atypical karyotype Is this a male or female? Where is the problem? What disorder does it cause? Whew! You're done! YAY! The first day of school you'll have a test on this direct content to ensure you understand what was covered. It will be counted as your first test of the year and this assignment is your first project grade. Please reach out anytime you feel stuck, I'm here to help! [email protected] you soon!Mrs. Carignan